Tyler Jones- Discussion Paper 2

Hypocrisy and Early America

The distinction between the United States slave society and the Roman’s was clear from the very beginning of Professor Satterfield and Professor McKinney’s joint lecture.   The Roman slaves were not only educated but many were educators themselves whom helped rear the youth of these societies.  They were also doctors, secretaries, and philosophers.  While the Roman Slaves were still considered property and their freedoms were restricted, they had certain privileges within society and could even integrate and become Roman citizens once they had bought and obtained their freedom. [1]To say the American South was a vastly different slave society would be underselling just how ridiculous and sadly powerful the slave intuition was.  The thought of integrating slaves into mainstream society would have been considered a radical idea. So much so that segregation was the law of the land well into the 20^th century.  Slaves being able to read and write were dangerous and susceptible to revolt.  It was prudent for owners to constantly monitor dangerous behavior.  Religion among the devout southern Christians was skewed so as to conform to the institution of slavery.[2]  Contrasting the two societies even further it becomes apparent how drastically different American slavery was to Ancient Rome when discussing the American Revolution.  The Colonial’s fought for their rights against the British Empire while simultaneously excluding their slaves from those same fundamental rights. 

            The American Revolution does not happen if George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, and the other Founding Fathers of the United States are laborers who would have to work their own lands.[3]  Instead they were each given the economic freedom necessary to discuss and congregate the empirical rule of the British. 

“We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness”[4]

The Declaration of Independence was obviously not a declaration for ALL men, as slavery did not “officially” end for another century after the Revolutionary War.   The diction and rhetoric were in stark contrast with the reality of slave life.  How could the colonialist write and support such a statement while at the same time oppressing and limiting the freedom of their slaves?  To say it is not okay for the British to impose “taxation without representation” and to simultaneously deny slaves the right to choose who they can and cannot marry is the height of absurdity.  The Revolutionary War offered slaves and ex-slaves a chance to use their oppressive society own words against them,

“we have in common with all other men a naturel right to our freedoms without Being depriv’d of them by our fellow men as we are a freeborn pepel and have never forfeited this Blessing by aney compact or agreement whatever[5]

The colonials having their own logic used against them, combined with the very real threat of slaves fighting alongside the British forced some colonies like Massachusetts to dissolve slavery and to allow slaves to “earn” their freedom if they fought alongside the revolutionaries.[6] It was small step, but a step nonetheless in some areas as slaves could potentially earn their freedom. 

            The Constitution is full of hypocrisy that shaped the early stages of American History.  David Waldstreicher noted that six of the American Constitutions clauses directly relate to slavery and their owners.[7]  Yet famously the word slavery is never used or mentioned.  The founding fathers were complicated individuals with mixed emotions on the topic of slavery.  It is clear at a fundamental level that they felt it was morally wrong or “slavery” would have been outright mentioned by name.  At the same time, clauses such as the three-fifths clause gave a great incentive for the southern slave owners to add more slaves, as it meant more power for the South within the American government. 

“Africans and their descendants were not being defined as three-fifths of a person, as is sometimes said, for that would have implied that the men among them deserved three fifths of a vote, when they had none, or had three-fifths of a person’s rights before the law, when they had much less than that”[8]

Slaves were being counted as a part of the population.  Yet they had no right to vote or lobby within this supposed democratic society as they were slaves.  The United States had just fought for this very freedom against the British.  The absurdity of being counted among the population but not having any of the right’s promised to every other American citizen was truly the peak of early American hypocrisy. 

The Untold Story

There is a huge list of names that the United States citizens give much praise for the foundation of the United States.  You have Christopher Columbus who is said to be the founder of the New World.  You have the founding fathers, George Washington, John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and Benjamin Franklin, who are praised for creating the structure for America’s democracy.  You have Lewis and Clark who are given credit for their expedition across the western portion of the United States.  The list of names goes on and on, however the list doesn’t give any credit to a majority of the individuals who are responsible for the shaping of the United States. These individuals are African Americans.  Through the readings from Major Problems in African-American History, Buffalo Dance: The Journey of York, Slavery’s Constitution, and African American Voices, insight is given on just how large of a role Africans played in the shaping and founding of America. 

            When reading the United States Constitution, it is very interesting in the way that it was crafted because there is not a single moment that the word slavery is mentioned.  This was no accident, but rather it was a carefully thought out plan from the founding fathers.  This allowed a lot of wiggle room and allowed white citizens to own a slave without it going against the Constitution.  Slavery was the status quo during this time, and to go against slavery would be to against the United States.  Slavery was seen as a benefactor to the economic success of the United States, and no matter how wrong one thought slavery was, those who benefited from the institution of slavery were not going to go against it.  It’s quite fascinating that a document, which was created with the thought of democracy for the people of the United States, did not change ones’ mentality to practice freedom and equality for all people.

            History textbooks do a great job of keeping certain voices and events silent.  The journey of Lewis and Clark is known to be own of the greatest expeditions in American history.  They traveled all throughout Western America, looking for new land for the citizens to expand across.  The history books tell us that there were only three individuals who were part of this journey, and those people are Meriwether Lewis, William Clark, and Sacagawea.  These three individuals are only part of the story, for there is a large group of individuals who are missing from the story, those people being African Americans.  We are given a whole new perspective of this expedition, as we are able to see the journey through the eyes of York.  Frank Walker publishes a series of poems that narrate the thoughts and perspective of York, a personal slave of William.  Throughout the text, you see York struggling and wrestling with the issues of family, religion, love, freedom, and his place as a slave. 

            One of the largest impacts that African Americans had on the United States was creating and preserving a new culture.  Through the acts of commodification, white slave owners tried numerous times to strip the identity of African individuals.  Each attempt failed as Africans used numerous tactics to prove their humanity.  Though taken away from their homeland, Africans did not leave their culture behind, but rather they took the ideas of American culture, mixed it with their own culture, and they were able to create a new, shared culture.  Christianity was supposed to be used as a tactic to assimilate African Americans, but it backfired as African Americans mixed it with their own culture and created different denominations such as Baptist and Methodist.  They created a shared language to use throughout their community.  Along with the creation of a new language, African Americans also created new genres of music and performed different type of spiritual rituals.  The creation of this new culture allowed for African Americans to grow stronger as they were able to form their own community.

            American history is usually written and told from the perspective of the white man.  It’s not that the history, which is told from this perspective, is false, for in most cases it is not.  However, it does not tell the full story, therefore, it is not entirely true.  African Americans are to be given much credit for the founding and creation of the United States and its culture.  These readings break the silence, which holds so many secrets of America’s history.  Evidence of African American culture can be seen through different genres of music, different languages, and different denominations of Christianity that are still prevalent to this day.

           

African American Humanity

Andrew Green

10/16/2014

HIST 205

Discussion Day #2

            The time period of The Revolution sparked a change in slaves. The process of commodification began to end when the slaves saw their masters striving for freedom from Great Britain. Masters realized that they had to treat slaves more like humans in order to reduce insurrections and keep the slaves alive. Slaves needed to be fed in order to do hard manual labor. The masters realized that new slaves cost a lot of money so they had find a balance between pushing slaves to produce a certain amount of product and giving them rest so they don’t die from dehydration or heat stroke in the summer. During the winter masters had to give slaves just enough clothing so they wouldn’t die from frostbite, pneumonia, or other fatal consequences of living in cold conditions.

            When slaves saw their masters fighting Britain’s oppression, they decided to fight for their rights as well. The slaves from Fairfield County, Connecticut in African American Voices constructed their petition for freedom similar to how the colonists drafted up the Constitution. These slaves spoke of how they were forbidden to read or learn in order to keep them in submission. “They have added another dreadful evil in holding us in gross ignorance, so as to render our subjection more easy and tolerable.”[1] They also brought up how slaves were separated from their families and treated unjustly and had their rights taken away and were forced into a lifetime of slavery only because they were a certain color. The Revolution marked a time when slaves had more ways to fight the institution than ever before thanks to their owners preoccupation with fighting Britain. Slaves had the three choices. They could fight for the colonists, the British, create insurrections, or they could simply run away.

            British generals like Lord Dunmore petitioned slaves to join the British side and obtain their freedom. Lord Dunmore stated to slaves, “I do hereby further declare all indented servants, negroes, or others, (appertaining to rebels,) free that they are able and willing to bear arms.”[2] The British followed through on their promises by relocating African Americans who helped them to other British colonies.

            Consequently the colonists had to enlist African Americans in order to keep them from flocking by the hundreds to the colonists’ forces. [3] Some slaves who fought for the colonists were promised freedom and some even fought on their master’s behalf.

            The Revolution afforded slaves who didn’t want to fight for either the British or the Colonists the wiggle room to start insurrections. Nat Turner and Gabriel Prosser, and others started insurrections with the same goals in mind that the Colonists were fighting for themselves. Getting back at their masters while freeing fellow slaves along the way was just an added bonus for them.

            Slaves began to get their humanity back as they saw their white counterparts fighting against unfair taxation, forced military service, and being forced to house unfriendly British soldiers. They wanted their masters and other whites to realize that they were people too and deserved happiness. Slaves saw their masters fight for freedom as justification for them to fight for the abolition of slavery. Slaves went through harsher abuses against their humanity and happiness like separation of family members, severe whippings, and forced labor. Their masters fight against non-physically harmful abuses made slaves realize they were justified in petitioning for their freedom.

            Religion also gave slaves their humanity back because they could now be part of a community. Slaves could assimilate into the white man’s community by converting to Christianity. They could now worship with and even preach to their white counterparts. Accepting Christianity also led to some slaves learning how to read. Slaves who had nicer, missionary-type masters were taught to read the bible even though it was illegal. The bible was used by slave owners to say that God approved of slavery, but abolitionists and slaves interpreted it as being against slavery. These two ways of interpreting the bible made masters prevent their slaves from learning to read. A ignorant, slow-witted slave was easier to control than a smart, quick thinking slave.

            After centuries of being commodified and treated like work animals slaves began to get used to life in the colonies. They formed little communities with each other and even families when masters permitted it. They found similarities in their different cultures and American born slaves fused together their African heritage with their current situation in America. Thanks to the revolution and the paradox that was seen between the colonists fight for freedom while still holding slaves; people called abolitionists began petitioning for slaves emancipation.

            When the workday ended slaves had the freedom mingle with one another without being separated by age, sex, or ability to do what kind of work. Slaves were now able to form friendships and relationships with each other. Families were being formed and slaves could now help each other through tough times.

            These relationships and familial ties allowed slaves to resist the institution. Masters were against teaching slaves to read because a dumb slave was a good slave. Smart slaves had problems with being subservient to masters and interpret the bible as being against slavery. Once slaves learned to read religion became their biggest proponent in the fight for slavery.

            Slaves used religion to tell each other to escape and how not to be caught. “Steal away Jesus”, meant for slaves to runaway; which was also called stealing themselves. “Wade in the water”, meant to stay near the water so dogs couldn’t track them down.

            Thanks to the changing times and attitudes about slavery coupled with less man power masters had to institute a system of give and take in order to avoid trouble with slaves.  South Carolina governor James Henry Hammond gave his overseer what he thought was the best disciplinary regime. He kept overseers from going too far with punishment, he separated child work from adult work, and gave slaves freedoms like marriage, having gardens, going to church and town, and visiting slaves on other plantations.

            African American voices and Major Problems in African-American History gave examples of how African Americans were given some of their humanity back during and after the revolution. They were part of America’s Christian community and formed communities of their own through their African heritage and shared slave status on plantations. Because of their masters preoccupation with the Revolution and a belief that slavery might be wrong masters had to treat slaves more like humans in order to avoid insurrections, runaways, and keep slaves from fighting for the British.

---

[1] Mintz, Steven. “African American Voices: The Life Cycle of Slavery.” New York: Brandywine Press 2004. Page 89.

[2] Mintz, Steven. “African American Voices: The Life Cycle of Slavery.” New York: Brandywine Press 2004. Page 86.

[3] Mintz, Steven. “African American Voices: The Life Cycle of Slavery.” New York: Brandywine Press 2004. Page 87.

Tate Mulligan: Black Suppression and Culture in the American South: Antebellum Period

Tate Mulligan

Reaction Paper #2

15 October 2014

History of Slavery

mulkt-18@rhodes.edu

Black Suppression and Culture in the American South: Antebellum Period

         The majority of the United States’ society tried to make slaves and the system of slavery invisible in the day-to-day life and in the official political realm, but the slaves resisted this continuation of commodification by creating their own culture in the midst of the white society. The slaves took traditions from all over Africa, and mixed them with cultural aspects of their masters, the European settlers, creating an identity for themselves in the United States.

        The white society in the United States rarely spoke about slavery directly. Society did not speak about the institution of slavery because the more that people talked about it; the more that people realized the corruptness of the system. In the Constitution of the United States, “ the American [political] leaders gave ambiguous answers to the question of slavery.” [1] It is one of the founding documents of the United States and it does not recognize slavery directly, but almost every “clause protect[s] slavery.” [2] The lack of acknowledgement of the institution proves that the American society did not want to recognize that slavery was a complete injustice to a significant part of the population for economic reasoning and political power. In fact, the Founding Fathers were willing to protect the institution of slavery in every part of the Constitution. They meticulously worded the document and never said the word slave. [3] In many instances, slavery was justified in religion and politics, but it was justified between the lines, so the institution of slavery was never directly stated. It made it harder for the institution to be blamed. The normality of not talking about slavery was apart of the continuation of the process of commodification. [4] The slaves felt everything a neglected human being would feel; yet the American society did not even admit that the system was a problem because slavery created the economic foundation of the United States and power to the Southern states because of the Three-Fifths Compromise.[5]  The Three-Fifths Compromise created an unbalance in power in favor to the South of the United States. The South was using slave labor, so when the Compromise passed, the population was larger on the census in comparison to the population who was qualified to vote. This advantage helped solidify the power of the slave states, and created more of a resistance for slavery to be talked about. Slavery was apart of aspect of society in the United States, and the deeper it was threaded into the fabric of the United States the more difficult it became to address it. [6]American slaves resisted the institution of slavery by expressing their humanity through a new culture that formed.

         The culture that the African Americans created in the United States was an interesting combination of the African culture the slaves or the slaves’ family members were taken from and the European culture that they were being dictated by. Many of times the Africans were from various African countries, so the slaves would find similarities in culture to share to remember and embrace their African culture. During ceremonies the men and women would dance in a ring to represent their “togetherness and containment.” [7] These cultural commonalities created unity within the communities of slaves, and through the recreation of traditions the slaves started to create an African American culture. As well as recreation of African culture, there was transformation of the European culture into more expressive and non-traditional ways of worshiping in the Christian faith. Many blacks found comfort in the Old Testament, specifically the story of Moses. [8] Many of the masters feared that if the slaves understood these stories, the stories would create a sense of hope for the slaves, and there would be more attempts to escape because God would protect them if they did. Along with religion and dancing, the music that the African American slaves created was a way to get through their daily struggles and to express them selves through coded lyrics or rhythms. [9] The African American culture allowed the slaves to keep their humanity, and went against the idea of the slaves being invisible.

       The concepts of invisibility of the slaves and African American culture clashed on the American stage. Many enslaved people did not understand how the blacks fought for American freedom in the Revolutionary War, but they did not receive the same equality and liberty that the European settlers received from the British.[10] The slaves justified their call for freedom by telling the white settlers that they wanted the same freedoms that they, the white settlers had fought for. It was an ironic time because the Americans were asking the Englishmen for the same liberties and freedoms. It was the South’s greatest fear for the slaves to revolt against this institution that built and sustained the United States. A slave named Gabriel was one of the slaves that went as far as planning a rebellion to win over his freedom. He was tried and hung for his actions, but in this fine example, it installed fear into the slave owners and the made them look at the their role in the institution and how they were treating these African Americans.[11] If the white society had not been afraid, they would not have publically tried him. Fear was the driver in many of the actions of the white, American, slave-owners.

       To conclude, the white society in the United States continued to try to transform the African American slaves into a commodity and justify their actions through political theories and laws, religious guidelines and class systems. The African Americans rebelled this suppression in many ways, big and small such as dancing, religious beliefs and planning rebellions. The constant fear that the masters had of the institution disintegrating motivated and caused many of the actions of both the African American slaves and the American white society. 

Houston Hynes

Oct 12, 2014

Reaction Paper #2

The Development of African American Culture

           

After examining Saltwater Slavery, Major Problems in African American History, Buffalo Dance The Journey of York, among numerous other notable historical literary sources, it remains quite perplexing that a large proportion, if not all, of the African American story is simply left out of most primary school’s American history repertoire. Regardless of whether this exclusion is intentionally or unintentionally left out, it remains even more perplexing when considering this story, culture, is woven into the fabric of all things American (1). In response to things considering American and more specifically African American, the trans-Atlantic journey, the mix of both American and African cultures, and religion played the largest roles in creating the African American culture.

Undoubtedly the first mark of unification among the Yoruba, Akan, Ibo, Angolan, and other West and Central African people’s was the trans-Atlantic experience (2). Some may argue that the initial African-African enslavement due to imperial tendencies of African tribes in the 17^th century was the initialization of unity among enslaved African peoples; it’s difficult to directly link this distant process to America. Instead, memories of highly limited space, extremely unhygienic conditions, malnutrition, loss of family and friends, among others horrendous variables, began the unification of a variety of differing cultures and people headed to the Americas. Although this ‘unification’ is both tentative and undermined when considering the American randomized dispersal of human cargo, it remains one of the most important commonalities among all enslaved Africans with American destinations in their futures. The commonality of social death, enslavement, and oppression is most definitely central to the African American culture, but the trans-Atlantic process seems to stick out as the true initial unification and or transformation of African people into African Americans.

The central debate about the origins of the African American culture is encompassed by ‘Americanization’ and ‘African survival. Frazier and Herskovits created these respective theories, yet one cannot solely explain the complexity of African American culture with out the other (3). Although this debate is ongoing, the combination of American and African cultures is undoubtedly the primary causes for the “mixing and mastering, puzzling and plastering…”of the African American culture (4). Though historians are still unsure if the first African’s to arrive in America were indentured servants or slaves, from this point, circa early to mid 17^th century, marks the original mixing of the two cultures. Sterling Stuckey cites that African “tribalism” was an outlet for many enslaved African Americans, enabling, “…them to go back to the sense of community in the traditional African setting and to include all Africans in their common experience of oppression in North America.”(5). This outlet is most definitely an example of ‘African survival’ culture, yet the America’s were the only place experiencing these African ‘tribalism’s’ outside of Africa. Not one explanation of African American culture development can be excluded in the explanation of this situation Once again demonstrating the combination of both ‘Americanization’ and ‘African survival’ in regards to the development of the African American culture. More specifically,  ‘tribalism’s’ like the ring dance demonstrate the evolution of cultural aspects that are African in scope into central aspects of the African American culture. Stuckey highlights that these circle/ring traditions were spread widely across Africa including tribes like Bakongo, Ibos, Yorubas, Ibibios, Efiks and places like Dahomey and Sierra Leon (6). These circle dances are central to a majority if not all African people and are practiced at funerals, religious functions, special occasions, and to reflect and connect to ancestors. Yet again once translated to American settings these dances and ceremonies translated to new practices in Christianity and also art like music and dance. With African ties and American settings these practices can only be labeled as African American.

Finally, religion had a large roll in the African American culture. Although religion is indeed intertwined with the culture origins debate between ‘Americanization’ and ‘African survival’ due to the time period and the Great Awakening, religion displays a more documented and visible combination of both African and American cultures. In Mechal Sobel’s “How White and Black Cultures Merged: Culture as Social Relations” he explains “after 1750, spiritual revival…began in response to the needs of the lower class, to their conflicts in values, and to their longings for coherence.” and “almost invariably, when it came, it came when and where whites were in extensive and intensive contact with blacks.”(7).  He also cites that small church settings, usually with congregations of lower class whites and blacks, were a portion of the relatively new evangelical revival. In this setting white and black are mingling in an at least semi-formal meeting, in turn developing new sects and practices of Christianity. Although as the 19^th century grew closer and segregation grew more status quo, the 18^th century is a prime example of the development of African American culture in a religious manner.

Although the developmental process of the African American culture is much more complex than the trans-Atlantic journey, the mix of African and American cultures, or religious examples, each of these aspects most definitely plays a role in the cultures development.  Recognizing that these aspects played a roll at different stages, time periods and degrees, the idea that all three aspects are part of African American culture development cannot be refuted.

People or Slaves: The Struggle between Personhood and Property and the Systematic Illustrations of Resistance in the Antebellum South

Milan Billingsley

History of Slavery Discussion Paper

Professor McKinney

October/15/2014

People or Slaves: The Struggle between Personhood and Property and the Systematic Illustrations of Resistance in the Antebellum South

            Throughout the history of slavery in the United States there has been a constant struggle concerning the classification of slaves. In certain instances they are considered as pure property which needs to be stored, fed and sustained. This topic is exemplified and fleshed out in Stephanie E. Smallwood’s book Saltwater Slavery. In other circumstances slaves are considered semi people who count as three fifths of a person, as we see in The Constitution of the United States, who have rights under municipal laws and who have free time to spend as they please after completing their daily tasks, as we see in Major Problems in African American History. In these writings and in Slavery’s Constitution the divide between personhood and property is made clear, slaves were found somewhere in between these two classifications. This, however, raises a fundamental issue because, according to the logic of slavery, slaves are meant to be property controlled by the master. Yet when we look at the institution of slavery we see consistent instances of resistance, rebellion, and exploration of the “systematic fissures and cracks within the ostensibly absolute hegemony of the master” (Holt 195).

            Saltwater Slavery does an exemplary job of showcasing how slaves were changed from people into property. While enduring the trans-Atlantic journey from Africa to the New World slaves were defined as property. They were captured, transported and then bought and sold along the West African Coast. Once put on ships they found themselves in extremely miserable conditions, life was scaled “down to an arithmetical equation” where “the lowest common denominator” was found (Smallwood 43). Their classification as property continued once in the Americas where they were taken off ships, cleaned, pruned, and finally sold to buyers for profit. This processes was brutal and many slaves died along the voyage. Being classified as property they are rarely remembered in documents outside of ledgers where their lives were only numbers on a spreadsheet.

            When, however, we look at our founding documents we see a systematic and covert approval of slavery. Our founding document makes many references to freedom, liberty and justice. It is a document which puts an emphasis on these ideologies and values. Even though it never mentions the word slavery it supports slavery in a myriad of ways. For one, it has the three fifths compromise where representation is based on the “whole number of free persons, including those bound for service for a term of years” and “three fifths of all other persons” (Constitution). Furthermore, it has the fugitive slave clause where escaped slaves had to be returned to their masters in article IV section 2. Finally the Federal Government has the power to restrict the slave trade. In all of these cases slavery is not mentioned overtly. Instead it is embedded in the background where it defines the lines of the American slave trade quite extensively. Even though people only glance over the issue today, the fact of the matter is that slavery was a central component of American life at the time and is omnipresent in the constitution. This omnipresence classifies slaves as three fifths of people, yet in actuality slaves are supposed to be slaves, people who are the legal property of another and are forced to obey them. This classification is a great example of the struggle between personhood and property that slaves encountered. On the one hand they are supposed to be property, but on the other hand they play a role in the legal representation of the state.

            Even more deserving of attention is the classification of slavery at the municipal level. At this level slaves possessed legal rights, rights such as “proper nourishment and clothing” and protection from “cruel treatment” from their masters (Holt 197). Thomas Cobb, an Antebellum Scholar, phrases the issue of classifying slaves quite elegantly when he says that the law by protecting him against cruel or unusual punishment “recognizes his existence as a person”, furthermore, “his existence as a person being recognized by the law, that existence is protected by the law” (Holt 197). In so doing, Thomas Cobb categorizes slaves less as property and more as people.

            These three writings, The Constitution of the United States, Saltwater Slavery, and Major Problems in African American History all exemplify the major problem within slavery. The institution of slavery was one that treated slaves as property. They were things. The same way you store your horses in the barn you need to store your slaves in a shack. The fact of the matter, however, was that slaves were not property, they were people. Over and over again we see that as people they try to make a space for themselves in this brutal and gruesome institution. They find ways to resist, rebel against and explore the fissures of the system.

            Dancing, music and burial practices are all great examples of slaves exploring the fissures of the system. Slaves would oftentimes partake in these activities because they were “an integral part of religion and culture” (Holt 128). Most common was the ring dance ceremony which was a West African ceremony honoring the ancestors of the dancers. By preserving their culture they were actively making a space for themselves, a space where they could be free humans. In this space they were free to enjoy their culture and traditions. Interestingly enough “for decades before and generations following the American Revolutions, Africans engaged in religious ceremonies in their quarters and in the woods unobserved by whites” (Holt 138).

By understanding how slaves simultaneously occupied “a double character of person and property” we can see how slaves managed to make space for themselves in an extremely oppressive system (Holt 196). The space they created was a space in which they could enjoy some of the most important of freedoms. What is most concerning is that the people who subjugate slaves to work in the fields also agree that they are not property. This is visible in the Constitution, where slaves represent three fifths of a person, and at the local municipal level where slaves enjoy certain protections from cruel punishment. By classifying slaves as part person they are in essence saying that slaves are not property, this in essence is a fallible argument for slavery and thus justifying slavery becomes a reason backed more by economic goals.

Bibliography

Holt, Thomas C., and Elsa Barkley. Brown. Major Problems in African-American History: Documents and Essays. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2000. Print.

Smallwood, Stephanie E. Saltwater Slavery: A Middle Passage from Africa to American Diaspora. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 2007. Print.

The Constitution of the United States

Isabella Nugent- Reaction paper #2

Isabella Nugent

Professor McKinney

Slavery in the US -205

Reaction Paper 2

October 16, 2014

            Religion is not a simple subject. An individual’s spiritual beliefs can be as much a part of one’s identity as the color of skin. For the vast majority of humans, their personal religious beliefs are the same as the woman’s arms they were placed in at birth. One’s religious beliefs therefore can be held as dearly as one’s own family. Understanding religion is also very emotional, because it is not based on fact like a geometry problem, but on faith and tradition. Even within the same religion, there are many factions, levels of belief, and accepted rituals. Typically, one’s religion is simply the religion of their community, and to deny that faith is like leaving the community. When Africans were torn from their homeland and families, their new masters attempted to destroy their religious beliefs as well. All humans, especially those who suffer greatly, often look to religion for comfort. The African-American slaves managed both to cling to their sense of culture and identity, while taking comfort in the Christian religion of their captors. This merging of faith and cultures from both Africa and America provided the slaves with a newfound sense of religion and community among themselves that allowed them to retain a sense of their own humanity.

            The majority of Africans brought to the New World were from areas of Africa with strong spiritual connections to their ancestors. This sacred emotional connection to family provided a major sense of identity for the descendents with their ancestors. Sterling Stuckey explains, “an integral part of religion and culture was movement in a ring during ceremonies honoring the ancestors”[1]. The most important use of the ring ceremony would be performed at funerals, where villagers would dance and sing in the circle, feeling intimately connected to family that had passed away. This ceremonial dance in a circle made the living feel they were a part of a much greater community that only grew larger, not smaller with the death of a family member. Each instrument and song represents a special, unique meaning that held great importance spiritually. Arriving in the New World, as traumatized and brutalized new slaves, Africans needed this sense of spiritual strength more than ever. The white masters however viewed the African religious rituals as corrupt, and forced their own Christian rituals upon their slaves. This forcing of Christian rituals was certainly not because the whites were concerned with saving their slaves’ souls, but just another method to break them down and steal their humanity. They may have even been afraid of the strength the Africans would gain from practicing their religious rituals. Of course, controlling a man physically is much easier than breaking a man’s spirit. “Africans engaged in religious ceremonies in their quarters and in the woods unobserved by whites…millions of slaves did the ring shout, unobserved, with no concern for white approval”[2]. Despite the severe risks associated with secretly defying their masters, the slaves tried to maintain their culture and their beliefs, while outwardly appearing to accept the white man’s rules. In the face of their constant struggle of dehumanization, the slaves were able to create a sense of their own culture and beliefs, and most importantly, a strong inner-community within the confines of their captivity.

To the average white man in the 1800’s, religion and all of its daily rituals and customs were viewed as an extremely important part of a family’s role in their community. Simply put, white families were expected to pray, read the Bible, and to be actively involved in their community’s house of worship. Many slaves were brought to church with their masters as a requirement, and as York states in one of his poems, “the only book we ‘lowed to know is the bible”[3]. As a result, many slaves began to adapt to Christianity and believe in Jesus on their own, finding comfort in the acceptable religion of their masters. It was a way for them to seek answers and find consolation in their otherwise chaotic and stressful lives. Mechal Sobel explains that in certain cases:

Blacks and whites in one congregation had to be at peace with one another, or ‘in fellowship.’ Disagreements had to be aired, and forgiveness extended, by all parties… Blacks appear in these church records as individuals, and their interaction with whites can be documents…black opinions were being heard and counted in many matters, not only in defense of charges made against them[4].

Needless to say, this sense of equality was extremely unusual during this time period, as slaves were more often treated as objects rather than humans. Even if for only an hour a week on Sundays, it was remarkable that a number of slaves were treated as somewhat equal within the walls of a church. Of course, even though it might have been allowed for a slave to voice their opinions in church, it is highly unlikely that a slave actually ever would, for fear of harsh consequences at the hands of a master following the church service.

            As whites and blacks continued to share churches, Sobel explains that many slave owners' opinions of slavery evolved, causing them to finally understand the malevolence of owning slaves. People began to openly preach about their newfound opposition towards slavery, leading “many other Baptists … to recognize the unrighteousness of slavery” causing a domino effect in many communities. Although it wasn’t enough to end slavery all together, the power of this religious movement had lasting effects. Even though Major Problems in African- American History, Buffalo Dance: The Journey of York, and Slavery’s Constitution discussed a variety of topics, the impact of religion and the blending of cultures has had a lasting impact on the history of slaves in America, and helped create a pathway for their future as citizens in the society of America.

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[1] Sterling Stuckey, “How Africans Preserved their Culture: Culture as Spirit” in Major Problems in African American History, 128-140,ed. Thomas C. Holt and Elsa Barkley Brown Vol 1. (Boston, MA: Houghton Miffin, 2000), 128.

[2] Sterling Stuckey, “How Africans Preserved their Culture: Culture as Spirit” in Major Problems in African American History, 128-140,ed. Thomas C. Holt and Elsa Barkley Brown Vol 1. (Boston, MA: Houghton Miffin, 2000)138

[3] Frank X Walker, Buffalo Dance: The Journey of York (Lexington, Kentucky: The University Press of Kentucky, 2004), 6.

[4]Mechal Sobel, “How White and Black Cultures Merged: Culture as Social Relations” in Major Problems in African American History, 128-140, ed. Thomas C. Holt and Elsa Barkley Brown Vol 1. (Boston, MA: Houghton Miffin 2000) 147.

Sam Sefton- Reaction paper 2

Sam Sefton

Essay 2

10/15/14

History 205- slavery in the US

sefsm-16@rhodes.edu

Resistance and Culture Provided Slaves with Humanity

The movement of commodification endeavored to rip the slaves from their familiarity.  They were no longer in familiar territory, nor did familiar faces surround them.  The slaves were separated from their families and stripped to foreign lands because they were now objects rather than people.  Their humanity was taken away from them just like everything else.  This aspect of slavery is not studied in society because it would humanize the slaves.  Society would be able to sympathize with the slaves.  Slavery is rendered invisible, and society takes interest in protecting this sheltered view of slavery.  Slaves resisted their masters, which left them with power and a sense of independence.  Resistance and culture became an escape from the commodification, leaving the slaves with power, humanity, and a sense of hope. 

            Resistance was a common occurrence among the enslaved.  Slaves that resisted their masters had consequences for their actions.  Frederick Douglass explains his disobedience, “One of my greatest faults was that of letting his horse run away…I would then have to go after it”[1].  This kind of resistance was done for an underlying purpose.  Douglass continues, “My reason for this kind of carelessness, or carefulness, was, that I could always get something to eat when I went there”[2].  He continues to explain that he was whipped for his resistance and eventually was rented to another slave owner.[3]  This form of resistance was so Douglass could have a proper meal.  Douglas did not resist against his new master until the master became violent against Douglass, “ I resolved to fight; and suiting my action to the resolution, I seized Covey hard by the throat…My resistance as so entirely unexpected, that Covey seemed take all aback…This gave me assurance”[4].  Masters do not expect their own property to fight back against them.  However, Douglass’ resistance gives him a sense of independence and power.  It allows the slaves to realize that they still have control of their own actions even if they are not the actions desired by the masters.  Douglass expands on his feelings after this argument, “…revived within me a sense of my own manhood.  It recalled the departed self-confidence, and inspired me again with a determination to be free”[5].  Resistance granted the slaves with hope.  This was a hope to be free, and a sense of self-preservation and independence.  It allowed the slaves to realize they were not completely bound by the masters’ demands, but rather just had to face the consequences that arose with their actions. 

            It was a common occurrence for the slaves to attempt to escape all together.   However, the master’s had a right to reclaim runaway slaves if they were found.  Rewards were normally given if the runaways were found.  The possibility of freedom was worth the potential harsh consequences.  Harriet Jacobs explains, “I raised the window very softly and jumped out… ‘Sally, I have run away.  Let me in, quick’”[6]. The reader can sense fear in Jacob’s voice, which was not uncommon.  Generally, when a slave ran away, there were many efforts taken to retrieve them.  “Six Advertisements for Virginia Slave Runaways, 1736,1767” demonstrates typical ads that were seeking the return of the runaway slaves.[7]  Each advertisement has a reward posted, which indicates the ownership that the masters have over their slaves.  When slaves runaway, it leaves them with independence, power, and humanity.  They are no longer under the power of their masters, but rather under their own power.  That is unless they are caught and returned.  It was inevitable that the masters would punish the slaves if they were found to reprimand them for their opposition to the master’s demands.  

The slavery movement formed a new kind of culture.  Charles Joyner author of “Believer I Know” notes, “most of the slaves’ culture was neither ‘retained’ from Africa nor ‘adopted’ from white slaveholders.  Rather, it was created by the salves from a convergence of various African cultural patters, white cultural influence, and the necessities demanded by the new environment”[8].  The slaves were not all from one part of Africa, so they came with different customs and beliefs.  The new slave culture was a merging of these differing customs and beliefs.  White culture introduces Christianity to this new African-American culture.  Joyner explains, “the story of the emergence of African-American Christianity is a story of an emergent African-American culture as well as of residual African cultures, a story of innovation as well as of tradition, a story of change as well of continuity”.[9]  This new form of Christianity allowed the slaves to believe and worship with each other.  It became a form of escape.  Joyner enlightens the reader, “The slaves’ spiritual life was largely hidden from white observation.  Often the slave preachers held services apart from the whites without their knowledge”[10].  This form of worship allowed the slaves to have their own religious identity.  It became a part of their culture.  This religious culture provided an escape from enslaved life.  It allowed them to have part of their humanity back. 

Familiarity for the slaves provided comfort and confidence.  Olaudah Equiano, a slave in West Africa, explains “their treatment of me, made me forget that I was a slave”[11].  She then continues to describe her time there and that her master’s language and customs were similar to her own culture.  Evidently, she was able to feel like a normal person because she was surrounded by her own culture and felt comfortable. 

The slaves were ripped away from their families, so it wasn’t unusual to form a family among other slaves.  These groups found ways to preserve their customs from home.  For example, York in the collection of Poems Buffalo Dance explains, “we shared camp fires, stories, an music”[12].  Stories and music were central to the African culture.  It was the way they would teach future generations.  York clarifies the importance of the stories “I try to keep every word I hear alive in my head so I can carry them back an warm the fires at home.  I think my people will ‘preciate stories where whoever struggle in the beginning make out alright in the end”[13].  The stories were passed through generations, and were guides of how the slaves lived.  York makes reference to ‘making out alright in the end’ this is because those are stories that the slaves can relate too.  They struggle in the beginning but hope to be ok by the end.  These stories provided the slaves with a sense of hope and optimism to not give up on life.  York summarizes “Nobody choose to slave.  Them choose to hold on to what little family them got.  Them choose to be sure somebody still here to tell our side to tell the whole truth when it all said an done”[14] The slaves grasp onto the small amount of culture they have left.  This culture is made up of other slaves to form slave families, which become a sense of comfort. 

            The integration of Slaves into America left the slaves with nothing but shock. Their families were most likely not with them, and many times the people around them didn’t speak the same language as them.  Therefore, slaves clung to people around them and a new culture was formed.  This culture left the slaves with familiarity and humanity.  They were able to comfortably be themselves.  Slaves were given a sense of freedom and life before enslavement when they sang, told stories, or celebrated someone’s life.  York concurs “singing songs an laughing a little somehow makes the load lighter”[15].  These customs made the slaves happy. Slaves found power and a sense of humanity in opposing their masters.  Whether slaves resisted the master’s orders, or ran away completely they had a sense of power over their own actions, which provided them with humanity.  They were able to have control over their own actions.  However, resistance led to harsh repercussions.  Forming slave communities allowed slaves to practice their former customs as well as providing an escape from enslavement.